@InProceedings{SantosSouzBitt:2018:CaStDe,
               author = "Santos, Marcia Alvarenga dos and Souza, Marcelo Lopes de Oliveira 
                         e and Bittencourt neto, Olavo de Oliveira",
          affiliation = "{Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)} and {Instituto 
                         Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)} and {Universidade de 
                         S{\~a}o Paulo (USP)}",
                title = "The oscar small satellites series: a case study for the 
                         development of environmental space law",
                 year = "2018",
         organization = "International Astronautical Congress, 69.",
             abstract = "In the beginning of the Space Age, large, heavy, complex, high 
                         tech satellites (civil or military) with the then state of the art 
                         technologies, were built and launched by State actors, inducing 
                         the development and later applying specific provisions of Space 
                         Law. At the time, they were viewed as representing no significant 
                         environmental in-orbit concern due to their small number, long 
                         life, total monitoring and control, and/or provisions for decay, 
                         reentry or removal. A notable exception to this was the OSCAR 
                         satellites series. These were relatively small, light, simple, 
                         low-tech satellites, built by radio-amateurs, carried along big 
                         rockets, which did not immediately lead to the creation of 
                         specific regulation. Despite not generating much attention from 
                         the international community, those space objects were the 
                         forerunners of the current trend towards increasing use of small 
                         satellites, currently justifying discussion of applicable 
                         provisions to protect the outer space environment. The present 
                         paper aims to review and discuss the problem represented by the 
                         growing number of low-tech small satellites in Earths orbit, as 
                         well as the insufficient amount of specific norms to avoid or 
                         reduce their impact to the outer space environment. This includes 
                         damage or destruction by interference, contamination, collision or 
                         other types of damage to (i) an area considered res communis 
                         omnium; (ii) operational space objects; (iii) an orbital niche; 
                         (iv) ground facilities (by risk of re-entry, fall, impact on the 
                         soil, on humans, on human facilities, on air, maritime, and 
                         terrestrial traffic); and (v) collateral activities 
                         (communication, sensing, meteorology, etc.). The purpose of this 
                         paper is to review and discuss the Space Law upon the OSCAR series 
                         as forerunners of the Environmental Space Law upon small 
                         satellites. The methodology proposed is to provide a review and 
                         discussion of the legal instruments induced and/or applicable to 
                         the risks represented by small satellites such as those of the 
                         OSCAR series, including the IADC Report on Space Debris (1995), 
                         the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Liability Convention (1972) and 
                         Registration Convention (1974). The results envisioned include 
                         review, discussion and considerations, from both technical and 
                         legal standpoints, to be developed and presented to the 
                         international community, considering applicable de lege lata and 
                         de lege ferenda initiatives.",
  conference-location = "Bremen",
      conference-year = "01-05 oct.",
             language = "pt",
        urlaccessdate = "28 abr. 2024"
}